Entrepreneurial Crime and the Sarbanes-Oxley legislation Essay

Entrepreneurial Crime and the Sarbanes-Oxley legislation - Essay Example National organizations have loopholes are due to geographical and spatial complexities and the fact that different cultures and legal systems are brought together (Acs & Szerb, 2007). Trade involving international players should be ethical and regulated by law. In the spirit of the Sarbanes-Oxley legislation, auditing accuracy, financial accuracy and operations between such entities and individuals must be undertaken in a clear and plausible manner to avoid fraudulent engagement (Acs & Szerb, 2007). On the contrary, the Fumitake Nishi, a former employee of the Tile Shop Holdings, Inc., and brother-in-law of the Company CEO colluded with another Chinese company where he was a majority shareholder to indulge in multiple practices that were unethical and fraudulent (Anderson, 2014). Even though, the audit did not reveal any substantial embezzlement of company funds, the vendor relationships and sourcing practices were unethical and tantamount to a contravention of law. (Acs & Szerb, 200 7). Incentive compensation practices that the Beijing Pingxiu (BP) indulged in were detestable because they meddled in the company’s vendor practices by yielding operations that unorthodox and fraudulent (Anderson, 2014). Many funds were paid into the victim’s private bank account by the company to secure the vendor deals. The process was prohibited because it denied conventional operators business opportunity over the course of time they operated the business (Acs & Szerb, 2007).

Vector GIS Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Vector GIS Project - Essay Example Purchasers may be individuals or businesses. In commerce, a retailer buys goods or products in large quantities from manufacturers or importers, either directly or through a wholesaler, and then sells smaller quantities to the end-user. Retail establishments are often called shops or stores. Retailers are at the end of the supply chain. Manufacturing marketers see the process of retailing as a necessary part of their overall distribution strategy. Shops may be on residential streets, or in shopping streets with few or no houses, or in a shopping center or mall, but mostly found in the central business district. Shopping streets may or may not be for pedestrians only. Sometimes a shopping street has a partial or full roof to protect customers from precipitation. Retailers often provided boardwalks in front of their stores to protect customers from the mud. Online retailing, also known as e-commerce is the latest form of non-shop retailing (cf. mail order). Shopping generally refers to the act of buying products. Sometimes this is done to obtain necessities such as food and clothing; sometimes it is done as a recreational activity. Recreational shopping often involves window shopping (just looking, not buying) and browsing and does not always result in a purchase. The superstore was designed to serve the community exclusively and accompany a website and catalog. Customers are sure to find thigh quality, brand-named dancewear discounted up to 30 percent. The superstore will offer wonderful customer service, Other features include computer kiosks where shoppers can browse the website, place orders, or post reviews and ratings for their favorite products. Working geographically reveals relationships among the forces that drive your organization. It helps you see patterns you could not see before, gain new insights, and make

Personal impression of Car designer Chris Bangle and his design Essay

Personal impression of Car designer Chris Bangle and his design - Essay Example BMW simultaneously passed Mercedes Benz and took the global leader title in sale of premium cars. He stood firmly for his designs and defended them against any criticisms. He retired from BMW after introducing GINA, a car of stunning concept, in 2009 (Bangle 4). In 2010, he brought his unique insight and extensive knowledge of design as he featured in annual design festivals in Victoria. Chris Bangle has inspired many people in the world of automotive design including children (Braes 12). However, Bangle states that art is the only secret to great cars. He says that automobiles refer to the embodiment of art, sculpture and entertainment that coincidentally provide transportation. In order for automobile design to be successful, the designer has to make very decisive designs. Bangle is the founding father of BMWs, which are very popular up to-date. He believes that automobile design is the only pinnacle of design, while others are only substrate forms. Today, the automobile has become a product with very high significant impact and emotional properties in the society. After houses, they are the second biggest purchased major properties in Bangle’s view. Developments in Automobile industry Automobile design has evolved from the frontier between science, art, and market, to progressively becoming an aesthetic reference (Bangle 5). Aspects like aesthetic appeal, brand expression and impression, and emotional response are greatly influenced by the appearance of the product and therefore it has become an area of great concern among automotive manufacturers and designers today. Factors that are related to aesthetic and identity like interior and exterior styling that increase a car’s attractiveness are the number one criteria in purchasing across the world. Bangle was very keen on this and that is what has made his car models very popular and classic until today. Activities in automobile design involve shaping the car until all its aspects are visible. This is in styling the shape of the outer body and interior’s graceful appointments, together with arrangement of the engine compartment components. Bangle (17) says that before technical features are evaluated, the direct perception of the vehicle plays a much bigger role in determining whether the vehicle will be accepted or rejected. According to Bangle, automobile design involves taking into account many elements like car function, market, distribution, production, promotion, safety, price reduction and environmental concerns. The Effects of Bangle’s Design Movement to the Industrial Design Industry Regardless of many sentiments from many critics, Bangle has significantly affected the industrial design industry (Braes 21). His one and half decade of service in automobile designs for Munich manufacturers was marked in his 2009 retirement. To understand the contributions that he has had in automobiles industry, it is important to take a look at BMW’s styling before and after his service. Since the 1960s stunning CS couples, BMW design was so conservative that getting more progress was rare. Conservativeness was like the polite way of saying and staying dull. However, the pr esence of Bangle really transformed the styling of BMW. It is not a wonder that within a short while, it overtook great cars like Mercedes Benz in demand and price in the market. The BMW’s driving dynamics and power trains were the envy of many manufacturers (Georgano 56). Its styling made their rivals spend sleepless nights, hence striving to improve their designs. Consequently, there was marked improvement in the industrial de

Bad effects of fast food Essay Example for Free

Bad effects of fast food Essay Did you know as of January, of this year, there is about 50 million people daily that eat fast food in America. That around 1/6th of the population. The average meal for a family of four at McDonalds can cost around $27.89, with a homemade meal for four costing $13.78, or $9.26 for a vegetarian meal. People argue that it just cheaper than cooking a meal but in reality it is a lot more. Even if you just order off the $1 menu you still have to think of the other expenses like gas. Another factor is health. On average someone eat fast food a least 2 times a week so compare to someone who doesn’t eat that much can gain up to 10 more pound. If you don’t exercise daily you can become out of shape fast. People who have family members with some diseases like Diabetes and high blood pressure should not eat as much fast food as they do because just eating it 2 times a week can double the incidence of insulin resistance, a risk factor for Diabetes. There is also lots of sodium in fast food and that alone can give you high blood pressure. People who eat fast-food 4 or more times a week, up their risk of dying from heart disease by 80%. Fast foods create a much higher risk of heart disease because of the high level of saturated or transfats found in much of the food. Those fats can clog the arteries and cause high cholesterol levels. A well-balanced food contains all essential elements which are necessary for human development. Whereas fast food does not have all these elements, this type of food contains some elements in high quantity while others are absent. So just by eating out because it cheaper at the moment or quicker in the long run you are actually paying more because of medical bills it’s just a game of cause and effect.

Business plan for a water bottling plant

Business plan for a water bottling plant Guha Water Bottling Plant is the name by which our water bottling plant will be known in India.   Ã‚  Mineral bottled water in India under the name Paath Neer will be first introduced by Guha Water Bottling Plant Pvt. Ltd. Mineral bottled water was in glass bottles in two varieties in the beginning. But later on it is available in 8 pack sizes: 250ml cups, 250ml bottles, 500ml, 1 liter, 1.5 liters, 2 liters, 5 liters, and 20 liters. Its operations will run throughout the subcontinent of India and will be one of the leading bottled water supplying companies of India. As of 2014, Paath Neer will have 8 plants 11 franchisees all over India. E:ASSIGNMENTSMY PROJECTSVISHAL GUHAimages3.jpg E:ASSIGNMENTSMY PROJECTSVISHAL GUHAimages1.jpg The first plant under Guha Water Bottling Plant will be established at Industrial Estate in Gurgaon, Haryana in mid-of 2011.This organization will grow with a rapid speed and able to built 7 more plants in a very short span of time. The other plants will be located in Jharkhand, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chandigarh, West Bengal, Chennai and Gujarat respectively. Later on, the company will plan to expand itself all over the World. As the companys chiefs have decided to build few plants in UAE and few Countries of Africa. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The name of our product itself says that we have the organization which is the manufacturer of the Mineral Water Bottles. The fountain of all life. Water can also be the cause of much misery. Especially in India, where contaminated water continues to bring down millions with diseases such as diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid, jaundice and gastro-enteritis. At home, most people are either forced to boil water or to install scrubbers. While traveling or eating in restaurants, buying bottled water has become necessary. This need has seen an explosion of companies on the market safe bottled water from all over the country. E:ASSIGNMENTSMY PROJECTSVISHAL GUHAbfb8531aab04457f8a0dbe48b8affd0e_s.jpg The tradition of bottled water and mineral water is not very old. Even in western countries the practice of bottled drinking water started in 1950s. The trend of having mineral water gained grounds in the market. In India, exposure to media and exposure to international lifestyles deteriorating levels of drinking water, increased number of cases of waterborne awareness about health and hygiene and other related factors cause acceptability of the concept of mineral water. The market has not looked back ever and since then has grown leaps and bounds to such an extent that some of real and superficial, the operators introduced him milk. CURRENT SITUATION Paath Neer will value its customers and will therefore develop unique packaging to meet the needs of each individual. Our products will be in 250 ml beakers, bottles of 250 ml 500ml, 1L, 1.5L, 2L, non-refundable containers and 5L, 20L, which return packages. Until the date on which the Indian consumer will consume Paath Neer water, very soon in our effort to go for something refreshingly new, we will introduce Paath Neer pure mountain water water will be brought to you from foot of the mountains in Himachal Pradesh. Therefore after new months of opening the plant our products range will includes two options: Paath Neer with added minerals and Paath Neer Mountain water. E:ASSIGNMENTSMY PROJECTSVISHAL GUHAbottlingplant-2.JPG This is capturing the market in India and overseas. PAATH NEER will be à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾- 1 and will capture the Indian market by providing the best quality for a period of long time. Now around 100 companies sell an estimated 424 million liters of bottled water valued at around Rs. 200 crore in the country annually. Paath Neer commits to offer every Consumer pure and clean drinking water. Paath Neer water has passed through many stages of purification, and finally ozonised packaged for consumption. R D Unit and a strict quality control will make PAATH NEER leader in bottled water segment. PAATH NEER seeks to maintain strict quality control each unit purchases implement and hat only from approved suppliers. INDUSTRY ANALYSIS Industry Analysis can be defined as a market assessment tool designed to provide a business with an idea of the complexity of a particular industry. Industry analysis involves reviewing the economic, political and market factors that influence the way the industry develops. Major factors can include the power wielded by suppliers and buyers, the condition of competitors, and the likelihood of new market entrants. E:ASSIGNMENTSMY PROJECTSVISHAL GUHAflorida-bottled-water.jpg The market for bottled drinking water is rapidly evolving since 1980, increasing nearly 400% over the last ten years according to the Council of bottled water producers because of the loss of consumer confidence in food protection and excellence of urban stream supply. In response to citizens and businesses to buy bottled water for use in their homes and offices. Free of contaminants and government care, and bottled water from protected springs or wells or produced by the refining and processing of water from public water supplies. Consumer demand for bottled water is expected to continue growing as water supplies worldwide are considered undrinkable and unhealthy. According to survey performed by E-Works in 1988, more than 60% of consumers go to the purchase of bottled water says taste, is the main reason for purchasing bottled water. Other reasons were cited for safety and too many chemicals in tap water. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT Guha Water Bottling Plant will be set in around 8 cities in India and its headquarter will be in Gurgaon. Our products will be in 250 ml beakers, bottles of 250 ml 500ml, 1L, 1.5L, 2L, non-refundable containers and 5L, 20L, which return packages. PAATH NEER will produce their own bottles in the house, and will soon purchase the most modern world-class art machines, making them on equivalence with international standards. This is not only that we will improve quality of packaging, but also reduces the material wastage and double production capacity. E:ASSIGNMENTSMY PROJECTSVISHAL GUHAbottlingplant-2.JPG E:ASSIGNMENTSMY PROJECTSVISHAL GUHAimages1.jpg By the opening of our plant, many people got employments such as: The main employees or you can say that the backbone of the industry will be our workers. We will have nearly 500 of workers working in the industry. Managers who manages the work of the company. Account Manager who manages the account office such as monetary works. At last our Indian government is also get benefited as we pay huge amount of tax. OPERATIONAL PLANS Guha Water Bottling Plant will be established at Industrial Estate in Gurgaon, Haryana in 2011. And, Paath Neer is the name of our product i.e. mineral water. It will be available in 8 pack sizes: 250ml cups, 250ml bottles, 500ml, 1 liter, 1.5 liters, 2 liters, 5 liters, and 20 liters. Its operations will run throughout the subcontinent of India and will be one of the leading bottled water supplying companies in India. The following are the Operational Plans of our organization: Location The company will control from around 45000 sq.ft. Of depot legroom in at Industrial Estate in Gurgaon, portion of that room being set away for office room. Guha Water Bottling Plant is currently working with county officials to identify and negotiate the lease on an appropriate site. Deliveries It has been predicted that road delivery person will deliver around 7000 bottles every day or 210000 bottles every month. If monthly delivery increases then extra person will be required for the process. This is predicted at the end of five months of Business. Insurance Guha Water Bottling Plants agreement with Rue Bottling, Rues product liability insurance will cover any such claims against Guha Water Bottling Plant .Company itself will also carry its own insurance, including 2.5 crores of umbrella liability policy. Future Plans for Bottling Once Guha Water Bottling Plant accomplishes a customer support of 4,000 or deliveries of 2,10,000 bottles per month, the company will begin to invest in equipment to bottle water in-house. An investment of approximately Rs. 55, 00000 would be required in order to procure the bottling machine. PRODUCTION PLANS PATH NEER manufactures its own products and has its own manufacturing unit which includes various machines; the whole manufacturing process is carried on by PAATH NEER at its plant. The whole manufacturing process is divided into different parts and it consists of different activities like water purification treatment, blowing of the bottles, filling of the bottles, packing of the bottles etc. E:ASSIGNMENTSMY PROJECTSVISHAL GUHAfiller-PEPA-2.jpg The following are the Production plans of our industry:- As per regarding the production its very important to satisfy our customers by providing them healthy and hygienic water. Employees trained for not only particular task, but especially use the entire concept. A big emphasis on comprehensive survey on the quality and integrity of our products. We must be constantly monitored for our own high standards for freshness and purity. We will producing 250 ml beakers, bottles of 250 ml 500ml, 1L, 1.5L, 2L, 5L, 20L, which return packages but later on planning to produce 50L bucket. We are also planning to reduce the cost of our product by reducing the profit of dealers. This will neither affect our industry but in return increase our business. MARKETING PLANS Our marketing plan is to establish a well-regarded brand name linked to a meaningful positioning. We will have to invest heavily in market to create a distinctive brand image projecting innovation, quality and value. The followings are the Marketing Strategies of the Guha Water Bottling Plant. They are: Free Trials To acquire more and fast customer support, Guha Water Bottling Plant planed to promote its free trial program, offering new customers the use of a company cooler for an interval of 25 days free of cost which contain two free bottles of water. Advertising E:ASSIGNMENTSMY PROJECTSVISHAL GUHAimages2.jpgGuha Water Bottling Plant intends to advertise its free trial offers by way of radio ads (secured through cross-promotion deals or barter arrangements), door hangers, posters in metros , busses ,parking places and ads in coupon packages. Trade and Consumer Shows Attendance and exhibits at local home and mall shows is also planned, to keep the Guha Water Bottling Plant name constantly in front of consumers. Placements The company will also place coolers in public places frequented by health conscious consumers, such as pharmacies and hospitals. HUMAN RESOURCE PLANS Guha Water Bottling Plant is a unique Human Resources Management restaurant that enables the process of acquiring talent, aligning them with organizations goals and leading the transformation, to help your organization take that leap in performance. From automating routine tasks, to generating strategic reports, to giving access to employee related information through self-service, Guha Water Bottling Plant does it all. Our key Modules include Performance Management, Training Development, and recruitment, HR Workgroup and Report/Analytics, Payroll, Self-Service. As far human resources plan concerns it is just about how you manages your employees, thus, the management of employees in our business is as follows: In our industry, there are nearly 2000 employees, including lower to higher level. As we have one Head Manager who manages all the employees in the plant so his salary is a bit higher than the any other employee. We have head in each of the branch of the restaurant such as in Ozonation, Filtration, Carbon Filtration, Reserve Osmosis System, Micro Filtration and Ozone Treatment. We select employees such as Manager, Tester, etc. who are passed out from good institution and have at least 2 to 3 years of work experience. The main point to be noted about our company is that we first train the employee then they are allowed to work. We also install suggestion box, and organize monthly meetings to follow up tasks. ASSESSMENT OF RISK The purpose of risk assessment is to identify hazards that could cause harm, assess the risks that may result from these hazards and adopt appropriate measures to eliminate or control risks. Significant findings of the risk assessment should be recorded as five or more persons. It will also be necessary to visit the site or sites to specific hazards identified. The followings are some risks for this industry: Bisleri, Aquafina and other companies are serving packed drinking water in all over India. Competition from brands operating and well-established brands operating in the market. Consumers are becoming more brand loyal rather than quality conscious. Attractive schemes are provided by the competitors for their brand promotion. Eureka Forbes and Aqua guard are trying to capture the market. FINANCIAL PLANS Financial planning is a process of formulating objectives, evaluation of assets and resources, assessment of future financial needs and plan to revise the economic targets. Many elements may be involved in financial planning including investments, asset allocation and risk supervision. Taxes, insurance and real estate are usually included. The Capital required to start a Water Bottling Plant is around 1 Crores. Source of Money:- I will get Rs. 10 Lakhs from my Parents. Around Rs. 50 Lakhs I will get from Two of my Friends who were working in United States and New Zealand. Rs. 10 Lakhs I will take from Venture Capitals. Rs. 20 Lakhs will be given by my Brother who is staying in UAE (Dubai). Rs. 10 Lakhs I will take Loan from any Indian Bank. There is some important point which I kept in mind while making a financial plan. They are as follows: Growth rate will be reasonable, and in smooth running. Sale would like to increase at a flow of 10% per year. 3. 2% 3% per year the cost will increase. Marketing Fees Marketing fees is generally for purchasing the material for production and convert them into finished product. This is also important one we should reserve some amount of fund for purchasing of raw material. Fixed and Variable Expense This fixed and variable expense is also required in our financial plan. As this expense is only determine by when we survey many plants after that we taking actual number from this plant which we survey. As by this we can know our fixed and variable expense.

Increasing Taxes to Bail Out Social Security Essay -- Argumentative Pe

Increasing Taxes to Bail Out Social Security In 1935 the United States was in the throws of the worst economic depression our country had ever seen. The President at the time was Franklin Roosevelt. As part of Roosevelt's "New Deal", he instituted Social Security, which established an old-age pension system, to be administered by the federal government, and financed by taxes on both employers and employees. This system was to help the older citizens and dependents of workers of the U.S. However, since its inception, Social Security has been turned into a retirement plan of sorts. Many retired and older citizens rely solely on Social Security benefits to live. The program has been successful for the last 64 years, but in the near future Social Security might run out of resources unless some drastic measures are taken to preserve it. The program will be collecting less than it is paying out by the year 2012 and be insolvent by 2030. Something must be done. Social Security has been a safe and reliable source of income for the old for the last 64 years. Some 42 % of elderly citizens rely on social security as a large part of their income. Every month, millions of people over the age of 65 receive a check in the mail. The preceding fact is one of the main reasons that Social Security is in trouble. When Social Security was first instituted, the percent of the population that lived past 70 was much lower than it was today. Recent discoveries in the medical field, and new attitudes towards eating and exercise have extended the life span of Americans much longer than in 1935. This means that there will be much more people receiving Social Security and they will be receiving it for a much longer time. The next problem with the sy... ... It seems to me that the government should stick with what it already does and knows how to do, that is, raise taxes. I am in favor of a sharp tax increase for Social Security. There is no risk involved in raising the tax, except for disapproval by the citizens of the U.S. I would also like to see the retirement age raised to 70 and the early retirement age raised to 65. This would make it lighter on the system as I mentioned above, providing more tax and fewer people to support. The measure I would implement would be to raise the cap on the amount of money that is taxable for Social Security. This would allow more tax money to be generated. These three things would set the system straight for the upcoming years. They are stable and sound ideas that have been proven to work. Privatization is not needed, we need to balance before we try to accumulate an abundance.

History of philosophy Essay

Philosophers Aestheticians Epistemologists Ethicists Logicians Metaphysicians Social and political philosophers Traditions Analytic Continental Eastern Islamic Platonic Scholastic Periods Ancient Medieval Modern Contemporary Literature Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Political philosophy Branches Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Political philosophy Social philosophy Lists Index Outline Years Problems Publications Theories Glossary Philosophers Philosophy portal v t e The history of philosophy is the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time. Issues specifically related to history of philosophy might include (but are not limited to): How can changes in philosophy be accounted for historically? What drives the development of thought in its historical context? To what degree can philosophical texts from prior historical eras be understood even today? All cultures — be they prehistoric, medieval, or modern; Eastern, Western, religious or secular — have had their own unique schools of philosophy, arrived at through both inheritance and through independent discovery. Such theories have grown from different premises and approaches, examples of which include (but are not limited to) rationalism (theories arrived at through logic),empiricism (theories arrived at through observation), and even through leaps of faith, hope and inheritance (such as the supernaturalist philosophies and religions). History of philosophy seeks to catalogue and classify such development. The goal is to understand the development of philosophical ideas through time. Contents [hide] 1 Western philosophy 1. 1 Ancient philosophy 1. 2 Medieval philosophy. 1. 3 Renaissance philosophy 1. 4 Modern philosophy 1. 5 Contemporary philosophy 2 Eastern philosophy 2. 1 Babylonian philosophy 2. 2 Indian philosophy 2. 3 Persian philosophy 2. 4 Chinese philosophy 3 Abrahamic philosophy 3. 1 Jewish philosophy 3. 2 Christian philosophy 3. 3 Islamic philosophy 3. 3. 1 Religious roots 3. 3. 2 Transferring of Greek philosophy 3. 3. 3 Periods 3. 3. 3. 1 Early Islamic philosophy 3. 3. 3. 2 Mystical philosophy 3. 3. 3. 3 Transcendent Theosophy 3. 3. 3. 4 Modern era 3. 4 Judeo-Islamic philosophy 4 African philosophy. 5 Further reading 6 See also 7 Footnotes 8 References 9 External links Western philosophy[edit] Western philosophy has a long history, conventionally divided into four large eras – the Ancient, Medieval, Modern, and Contemporary. The Ancient era runs through the fall of Rome and includes the Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. The Medieval period runs until roughly the late 15th century and the Renaissance. The â€Å"Modern† is a word with more varied use, which includes everything from Post-Medieval through the specific period up to the 20th century. Contemporary philosophy encompasses the philosophical developments of the 20th century up to the present day. Ancient philosophy[edit] Further information: Ancient philosophy Ionia, source of early Greek philosophy, in western Asia Minor Western Philosophy is generally said to begin in the Greek cities of western Asia Minor (Ionia) with Thales of Miletus, who was active around 585 B. C. and left us the opaque dictum, â€Å"all is water. † His most noted students were Anaximenes of Miletus (â€Å"all is air†) and Anaximander (all is apeiron). Other thinkers and schools appeared throughout Greece over the next few centuries. Among the most important were Heraclitus (â€Å"all is fire†, all is chaotic and transitory), Anaxagoras (reality is so ordered that it must be in all respects governed by mind), the Pluralists and Atomists (the world is composite of innumerable interacting parts), the Eleatics Parmenides and Zeno (all is One and change is impossible, as illustrated by his famous paradoxes of motion), the Sophists(became known, perhaps unjustly, for claiming that truth was no more than opinion and for teaching people to argue fallaciously to prove whatever conclusions they wished). This whole movement gradually became more concentrated in Athens, which had become the dominant city-state in Greece. There is considerable discussion about why Athenian culture encouraged philosophy, but a popular theory[which? ] says that it occurred because Athens had a direct democracy. It is known from Plato’s writings that many sophists maintained schools of debate, were respected members of society, and were well paid by their students. Orators influenced Athenian history, possibly even causing its failure (See Battle of Lade). Another theory explains the birth of philosophical debate in Athens with the presence of a slave labor workforce which performed the necessary functions that would otherwise have consumed the time of the free male citizenry. Freed from working in the fields or other manual economic activities, they were able to participate in the assemblies of Athens and spend long periods in discussions on popular philosophical questions. Students of Sophists needed to acquire the skills of oration in order to influence the Athenian Assembly and thereby increase respect and wealth. In response, the subjects and methods of debate became highly developed by the Sophists. The key figure in transforming Greek philosophy into a unified and continuous project – one still being pursued today – is Socrates, who studied under several Sophists. It is said that following a visit to the Oracle of Delphi he spent much of his life questioning anyone in Athens who would engage him, in order to disprove the oracular prophecy that there would be no man wiser than Socrates. Through these live dialogues, he examined common but critical concepts that lacked clear or concrete definitions, such as beauty and truth, and the virtues of piety, wisdom, temperance, courage, and justice. Socrates’ awareness of his own ignorance allowed him to discover his errors as well as the errors of those who claimed knowledge based upon falsifiable or unclear precepts and beliefs. He wrote nothing, but inspired many disciples, including many sons of prominent Athenian citizens (including Plato), which led to his trial and executionin 399 B. C. on the charge that his philosophy and sophistry were undermining the youth, piety, and moral fiber of the city. He was offered a chance to flee from his fate but chose to remain in Athens, abide by his principles, and drink the poison hemlock. Socrates’ most important student was Plato, who founded the Academy of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues, which applied theSocratic method of inquiry to examine philosophical problems. Some central ideas of Plato’s dialogues are the Theory of Forms, i. e., that the mind is imbued with an innate capacity to understand and contemplate concepts from a higher order preeminent world, concepts more real, permanent, and universal than or representative of the things of this world, which are only changing and temporal; the idea of the immortal soul being superior to the body; the idea of evil as simple ignorance of truth; That true knowledge leads to true virtue; that art is subordinate to moral purpose; and that the society of the city-state should be governed by a merit class of propertyless philosopher kings, with no permanent wives or paternity rights over their children, and be protected by  an athletically gifted, honorable, duty bound military class. In the later dialogues Socrates figures less prominently, but Plato had previously woven his own thoughts into some of Socrates’ words. Interestingly, in his most famous work, The Republic, Plato critiques democracy, condemns tyranny, and proposes a three tiered merit based structure of society, with workers, guardians and philosophers, in an equal relationship, where no innocents would ever be put to death again, citing the philosophers’ relentless love of truth and knowledge of the forms or ideals, concern for general welfare and lack of propertied interest as causes for their being suited to govern. Plato’s most outstanding student was Aristotle, perhaps the first truly systematic philosopher. Aristotelian logic was the first type oflogic to attempt to categorize every valid syllogism. A syllogism is a form of argument that is guaranteed to be accepted, because it is known (by all educated persons) to be valid. A crucial assumption in Aristotelian logic is that it has to be about real objects. Two of Aristotle’s syllogisms are invalid to modern eyes. For example, â€Å"All A are B. All A are C. Therefore, some B are C. † This syllogism fails if set A is empty, but there are real members of set B. In Aristotle’s syllogistic logic you could say this, because his logic should only be used for things that really exist (â€Å"no empty classes†) The application of Aristotelian logic is preceded by having the student memorize a rather large set of syllogisms. The memorization proceeded from diagrams, or learning a key sentence, with the first letter of each word reminding the student of the names of the syllogisms. Each syllogism had a name, for example: â€Å"Modus Ponens† had the form of â€Å"If A is true, then B is true. A is true, therefore B is true. † Most university students of logic memorized Aristotle’s 19 syllogisms of two subjects, permitting them to validly connect a subject and object. A few logicians developed systems with three subjects, or described a way of elaborating the rules of three subjects. Medieval philosophy[edit] Further information: Medieval philosophy The history of western medieval philosophy is generally divided into two periods, early medieval philosophy, which started with St. Augustine in the mid 4th century and lasted until the recovery in the 13th century West of a great bulk of Aristotle’s works and their subsequent translation into Latin from the Arabic and Greek, and high medieval philosophy, which came about as a result of the recovery of Aristotle. This period, which lasted a mere century and a half compared to the nine centuries of the early period, came to a close around the time of William of Ockham in the middle of the 14th century. Western medieval philosophy was primarily concerned with implementing the Christian faith with philosophical reason, that is, â€Å"baptizing† reason. Early medieval philosophy was influenced by the likes of Stoicism, neo-Platonism, but, above all, the philosophy of Plato himself. The prominent figure of this period was St. Augustine who adopted Plato’s thought and Christianized it in the 4th century and whose influence dominated medieval philosophy perhaps up to end of the era but was checked with the arrival of Aristotle’s texts. Augustinianism was the preferred starting point for most philosophers (including the great St. Anselm of Canterbury) up until the 13th century. During the later years of the early medieval period and throughout the years of the high medieval period, there was a great emphasis on the nature of God and the application of Aristotle’s logic and thought to every area of life. Attempts were made to reconcile these three things by means of scholasticism. One continuing interest in this time was to prove the existence of God, through logic alone, if possible. The point of this exercise was not so much to justify belief in God, since in the view of medieval Christianity this was self-evident, but to make classical philosophy, with its extra-biblical pagan origins, respectable in a Christian context. One monumental effort to overcome mere logical argument at the beginning of the high medieval period was to follow Aristotelian demonstration by starting from effects and reasoning up to their causes. This took the form of the cosmological argument, conventionally attributed to St. Thomas Aquinas. The argument roughly is that everything that exists has a cause. But since there could not be an infinite chain of causes back into the past, there must have been an uncaused â€Å"first cause. † This is God. Aquinas also adapted this argument to prove the goodness of God. Everything has some goodness, and the cause of each thing is better than the thing caused. Therefore, the first cause is the best possible thing. Similar arguments were used to prove God’s power and uniqueness. Another important argument for proof of the existence of God was the ontological argument, advanced by St. Anselm. Basically, it says that God is that than which nothing greater can be thought. There is nothing that simply exists in the mind that can be said to be greater than something that enjoys existence in reality. Hence the greatest thing that the mind can conceive of must exist in reality. Therefore, God exists. This argument has been used in different forms by philosophers from Descartes forward. In addition to St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Augustine and St. Anselm, other important names from the medieval period include Blessed John Duns Scotus, St. Bonaventure, Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, and Pierre Abelard. The definition of the word â€Å"philosophy† in English has changed over the centuries. In medieval times, any research outside the fields oftheology or medicine was called â€Å"philosophy†, hence the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society is a scientific journal dating from 1665, the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D. ) degree covers a wide range of subjects, and the Cambridge Philosophical Society is actually concerned with what we would now call science and not modern philosophy. Renaissance philosophy[edit] This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2013) The neutrality of this section is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (May 2013) Main article: Renaissance philosophy Contemporary philosophical historiography emphasizes a great â€Å"gap† between Middle Ages and Modern thought. And often this â€Å"gap† is used as a mean to characterize the meaning of the word â€Å"modern† used in â€Å"modern philosophy†. However, a historical perspective (and philosophical ones less interested into a single solid â€Å"gap†) emphasizes the existence of a long period of transition between the teleologically driven centuries (running up the 13th or 14th centuries) and the rationalists-empiricists debates. As well as for the figurative arts, music, vernacular languages and literatures, and the Christian religion, philosophy was greatly renewed in The Renaissance. The Renaissance, spread into Europe from Italy and in particular from Northern Italy and Tuscany, also by the means of architecture, arts and literature, inaugurated new philosophical problems, and permitted a new era of thought, independent from the Roman Church. If most medieval philosophers were priests and monks, early and late Renaissance philosophers were a more heterogeneous population, including rhetors, magicians and astrologues, early empirical scientist, poets, philologists. The new era put together all these souls in the search for the human specificity. The study of humanae litterae overcame that of divinae litterae, and opened the way for modern skepticism and science. Many philosophers from the Renaissance are today read and remembered, even if often not categorized into a single category, but spread into modern philosophy (if they fit, especially if oriented towards empiricism and rationalism, like Galileo Galilei or Machiavelli) or instead put back into the Middle Ages, especially if heavily influenced by esoteric traditions (like Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Marsilio Ficino and even Nicholas of Cusa and Giordano Bruno). Only a few, relatively â€Å"innocuous† philosophers are often fully recognized as Renaissance philosophers: Montaigne, Tommaso Campanella, Telesius among them. Modern philosophy[edit] Main article: Modern philosophy Further information: 17th-century philosophy, 18th-century philosophy, and 19th-century philosophy As with many periodizations, there are multiple current usages for the term â€Å"Modern Philosophy† that exist in practice. One usage is to date modern philosophy from the â€Å"Age of Reason†, where systematic philosophy became common, excluding Erasmus and Machiavellias â€Å"modern philosophers†. Another is to date it, the way the entire larger modern period is dated, from the Renaissance. In some usages, â€Å"Modern Philosophy† ended in 1800, with the rise of Hegelianism and Idealism. There is also the lumpers/splitters problem, namely that some works split philosophy into more periods than others: one author might feel a strong need to differentiate between â€Å"The Age of Reason† or â€Å"Early Modern Philosophers† and â€Å"The Enlightenment†; another author might write from the perspective that 1600-1800 is essentially one continuous evolution, and therefore a single period. Wikipedia’s philosophy section therefore hews more closely to centuries as a means of avoiding long discussions over periods, but it is important to note the variety of practice that occurs. David Hume A broad overview would then have Erasmus, Francis Bacon, Niccolo Machiavelli, and Galileo Galileirepresent the rise of empiricism and humanism in place of scholastic tradition. 17th-century philosophy is dominated by the need to organize philosophy on rational, skeptical, logical and axiomatic grounds, such as the work of Rene Descartes, Blaise Pascal, and Thomas Hobbes. This type of philosophy attempts to integrate religious belief into philosophical frameworks, and, often to combat atheism or other skeptical beliefs, by adopting the idea of material reality, and the dualismbetween spirit and material. The extension, and reaction, against this would be the monism ofGeorge Berkeley (idealism) and Benedict de Spinoza (dual aspect theory). It was during this time period that the empiricism was developed as an alternative to skepticism by John Locke, George Berkeley and others. It should be mentioned that John Locke and Thomas Hobbes developed their well known political philosophies during this time, as well. The 18th-century philosophy article deals with the period often called the early part of â€Å"The Enlightenment† in the shorter form of the word, and centers on the rise of systematic empiricism, following after Sir Isaac Newton’s natural philosophy. Thus Diderot, Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu,Kant and the political philosophies embodied by and influencing the American Revolution and American Enlightenment are part of The Enlightenment. Other prominent philosophers of this time period were David Hume and Adam Smith, who, along with Francis Hutcheson, were also the primary philosophers of the Scottish Enlightenment and Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson who were philosophers of the American Enlightenment. Edmund Burke was influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment, namely Hume’s skeptism and reliance on tradition and the passions, and while supporting the American Revolution based on the established rights of Englishmen, rejected the â€Å"natural rights† claims of the Enlightenment and vehemently rejected the Rationalism of the French Revolution (see Reflections on the Revolution in France). The 19th century took the radical notions of self-organization and intrinsic order from Goethe and Kantian metaphysics, and proceeded to produce a long elaboration on the tension between systematization and organic development. Foremost was the work of Hegel, whose Logic and Phenomenology of Spirit produced a â€Å"dialectical† framework for ordering of knowledge. The 19th century would also include Schopenhauer’s negation of the will. As with the 18th century, it would be developments in science that would arise from, and then challenge, philosophy: most importantly the work of Charles Darwin, which was based on the idea of organic self-regulation found in philosophers such as Adam Smith, but fundamentally challenged established conceptions. Also in the 19th century, the Danish philosopher Soren Kierkegaard took philosophy in a new direction by focusing less on abstract concepts and more on what it means to be an existing individual. His work provided impetus for many 20th century philosophical movements, including existentialism. Contemporary philosophy[edit] Further information: Contemporary philosophy The 20th century deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. 20th century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve, and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures include Ludwig Wittgenstein, Martin Heidegger, Bertrand Russell, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Edmund Husserl. Epistemology, the theory of knowledge, and its basis was a central concern, as seen from the work of Heidegger, Russell, Karl Popper, and Claude Levi-Strauss. Phenomenologically oriented metaphysics undergirded existentialism (Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Albert Camus) and finallypoststructuralism (Gilles Deleuze, Jean-Francois Lyotard, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida). Pragmatist Richard Rorty has argued that these and other schools of 20th century philosophy, including his own, share an opposition to classical dualism that is both anti-essentialist and antimetaphysical. [1] The psychoanalytic work of Sigmund Freud, Jacques Lacan, Julia Kristeva, and others has also been influential in contemporary continental philosophy. Conversely, some philosophers have attempted to define and rehabilitate older traditions of philosophy. Most notably, Hans-Georg Gadamer and Alasdair MacIntyre have both, albeit in different ways, revived the tradition of Aristotelianism. The philosophy of the present century is difficult to clarify due to its immaturity. A number of surviving 20th century philosophers have established themselves as early voices of influence in the 21st. These include Noam Chomsky, Saul Kripke, and Jurgen Habermas. The perceived conflict between continental and analytic schools of philosophy remains prominent, despite increasing skepticism regarding the distinction’s usefulness. A variety of new topics have risen to the stage in analytic philosophy, orienting much of contemporary discourse in the field of ethics. New inquiries consider, for example, the ethical implications of new media and information exchange. Such developments have rekindled interest in the philosophy of technology and science. There has been increased enthusiasm for highly specialized areas in philosophy of science, such as in the Bayesian school of epistemology. In contemporary continental thought, a number of developments are taking place. The field of postcolonial theory, championed in the late 20th century by theorists such as Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak and Homi K. Bhabha has established itself as a major academic presence. The Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Zizek remains tremendously popular in both academic and popular demographics, synthesizing Lacanian, Hegelian, and Althusserian Marxist thought in discussions of popular culture and politics. Zizek is also involved with the contemporary thrust to step beyond postmodernism and the linguistic turn of the 20th century. Key contributors to this movement are the French polymath Alain Badiou, and those classified under the blanket designation of speculative realism, includingQuentin Meillassoux and Ray Brassier. On the other hand, the American philosopher Judith Butler has strong support among many demographics in her close readings of language, gender, subjectivity, corporeality, kinship, war and non-violent ethics. As a result she has received strong criticism from Zizek to Martha Nussbaum and radical Zionists. Eastern philosophy[edit] Main article: Eastern philosophy In the West, the term Eastern philosophy refers very broadly to the various philosophies of â€Å"the East†, namely Asia, including China,India, Japan, Persia and the general area. One must take into account that this term ignores that these countries do not belong to a single culture. Ancient eastern philosophy developed mainly in India and China. Babylonian philosophy[edit] See article Babylonian literature: Philosophy Indian philosophy[edit] See article Indian philosophy and Timeline of Eastern philosophers#Indian philosophers See also Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy and Jain Philosophy Indian philosophy primarily begins with the later part of Rig Veda, which was compiled before 1100 BCE. [2] Most of philosophy of the Rig Veda is contained in the sections Purusha sukta and Nasadiya Sukta. Vedas are followed by Upanishads; the oldest, such as theBrhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, have been dated to around the 8th century BCE. The philosophical edifice of Indian religions viz. , Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism is built on the foundation laid by the Upanishads. Upanishadic thoughts were followed by the Buddhist and Jain philosophies. Persian philosophy[edit] See article Iranian philosophy See also Zoroastrianism Chinese philosophy[edit] See article Chinese philosophy and Buddhist philosophy#Chinese Buddhism Confucianism can be considered as the oldest school of philosophy in China. [citation needed] Confucianism developed in China around the same time as Buddhism and Jainism developed in India. Another school of philosophy, Taoism, developed in China around 200 BC. [citation needed] Abrahamic philosophy[edit] See also: Abrahamic religions Abrahamic philosophy, in its loosest sense, comprises the series of philosophical schools that emerged from the study and commentary of the common ancient Semitic tradition which can be traced by their adherents to Abraham (â€Å"Father/Leader of many† Hebrew (â€Å"Avraham†) Arabic (â€Å"Ibrahim†), a patriarch whose life is narrated in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, and as a prophet in the Qur’an and also called a prophet in Genesis 20:7). The standard text common to all of these subsequent traditions are what is known as the Hebrew Bible, roughly the first five books of the Old Testament, starting with the book of Genesis through to Deuteronomy. However, each of them added substantially different texts to their emerging canons, and hence their respective philosophical developments varied widely. Jewish philosophy[edit] Jewish philosophy Christian philosophy[edit] See article Christian philosophy Islamic philosophy[edit] See articles Islamic philosophy, Early Islamic philosophy, and Modern Islamic philosophy Islamic philosophy as Henry Corbin describes is a philosophy whose development, and whose modalities, are essentially linked to the religious and spiritual fact of Islam. [3] In the other word, it represents the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture. This description does not suggest that it is necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor even that it is exclusively produced by Muslims. [4] Religious roots[edit]. Theoretical questions were raised right from the beginning of Islam, questions which could to a certain extent be answered by reference to Islamic texts such as the Quran, the practices of the community and the traditional sayings of Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, and his Companions. [4] In fact, rational argumentation about Islamic doctrines starts with Quran itself, and has been followed up in the utterances of the Muhammad and especially in the sermons of Ali. This despite the fact that their style and approach are different from those of the Muslim theologians. [5] Though nothing definite can be said about the beginnings of theology among Muslims, what is certain is that discussion of some of the problems, such as the issue of predestination, free will and Divine Justice, became current among Muslims during the first half of the 2nd century of Islam coincides with 8th century. Perhaps the first formal centre of such discussions was the circle of Hasan al-Basri(d. 728-29). [5] Later several theological schools have emerged from 8th to 10th century. Mu’tazili theology originated in the 8th century in Basra (Iraq) by Wasil ibn Ata (d. 748 A. D. ). [6] Transferring of Greek philosophy[edit] The early conquests of the Muslims brought them into close contact with centers of civilization heavily influenced by Christianity and also by Greek culture. Many rulers wished to understand and use the Greek forms of knowledge, some practical and some theoretical, and a large translation project started which saw official support for the assimilation of Greek culture. This had a powerful impact upon all areas of Islamic philosophy. Neoplatonism definitely became the prevalent school of thought, following closely the curriculum of Greek philosophy which was initially transmitted to the Islamic world. [4] Periods[edit] Henry Corbin has divided the history of Islamic philosophy into three periods. [7] Early Islamic philosophy[edit] The first period of Islamic philosophy coincides with Islamic golden age. During this time pure philosophical thought is usually usedAristotelianism and Neoplatonism thought as its sources. But it also influenced by Islamic thought and culture. Falaturi has shown in his research that how Hellenistic philosophy diverged in the context of Islamic culture. On the other hand Corbin has shown how mystic aspect of Islam, especially Shia affected philosophy. This period begins with al-Kindi and ends with Averroes(d. 1198). [7] On the other hand there were crucial theological debates between Muslim theologians. These discussion also helped to rise of rational debates about religion, especially Islam. Avicenna is one the most prominent figures of this period. He is a thinker who attempted to redefine the course of Islamic philosophyand channel it into new directions. Avicenna’s metaphysical system is built on the ingredients and conceptual building blocks which are largely Aristotelian and Neoplatonic, but the final structure is more than the sum of its parts. [8] In the Islamic Golden Age, due toAvicenna’s successful reconciliation between Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism along with Islamic theology, Avicennism eventually became the leading school of early Islamic philosophy by the 12th century. Avicenna had become a central authority on philosophy by then. [9] Although this school was highly criticized by Muslim theologians, such as al-Ghazali, philosophers, like Averroes, and Sufis, Avicenna’s writings spread like fire and continued until today to form the basis of philosophic education in the Islamic world. For to the extent that the post-Averroistic tradition remained philosophic, especially in the eastern Islamic lands, it moved in the directions charted for it by Avicenna in the investigation of both theoretical and practical sciences. [8] Mystical philosophy[edit] After the death of Averroes, Islamic philosophy in the Peripatetic style went out of fashion in the Arab part of Muslim world, until the 19th century. Mystical philosophy, by contrast, continued to flourish, although no thinkers matched the creativity of Ibn Arabi or Ibn Sab‘in. In the Persian-speaking part, Islamic philosophy has continued to follow a largely Illuminationist curriculum, which is introduced by Suhrawardi. [4][7] Transcendent Theosophy[edit] The third period, according to Corbin, begins in the 16th century after emergence of Safavid dynasty in Persia. [7] The most prominent figure of this period is Mulla Sadra who introduced Transcendent Theosophy as a critical philosophy which brought together Peripatetic,Illuminationist and gnostic philosophy along with Ash’ari and Twelvers theology, the source of which lay in the Islamic revelation and the mystical experience of reality as existence. [10][11] This philosophy becomes dominant form of philosophy in Iran since 19th century. Shah Wali Allah extended Suhrawardi school of thought to the Indian subcontinent. [4] Modern era[edit] New trends have emerged during 19th and 20th centuries due to challenge of western philosophy and Modernity to traditional Islamic philosophy. On one hand some of the scholars such as Jamal-ad-Din Asadabadi and Muhammad Abduh sought to find rational principles which would establish a form of thought which is both distinctively Islamic and also appropriate for life in modern scientific societies, a debate which is continuing within Islamic philosophy today. Muhammad Iqbal is one of the prominent figure of this group who provided a rather eclectic mixture of Islamic and European philosophy. On the other hand some thinkers reacted to the phenomenon of modernity by developing Islamic fundamentalism.