Quantitative risk assessment Essay Example for Free

Quantitative risk assessment Essay Monte-Carlo simulation is carried out using a large number of computations, using a computer, with random inputs. This method is particularly useful when it comes to â€Å"predicting† the outcome a complex eventuality. Typically, the Monte-Carlo simulation is useful when predicting the outcome of a large number inter-related factors that are â€Å"uncertain†. Predictivity using Monte-Carlo simulation is far more accurate where variables under consideration are many, uncertain and random. For this particular reason, using Monte-Carlo simulation for this study is the best choice as there are many uncertain factors that need to be analyzed for computing a risk assessment. In this study, the first step begins with the production of meat and ends with health effects that meat can probably induce in consuming subjects. There is a large interplay of uncertain factors, and the entire food chain model proposed in the study has inherent variability across most levels. 2. What comment would you make about the source of data used for the concentration of E. coli in cattle feces? Prevalence and concentration of E. Coli in cattle fecal matter was used to assess the level of contamination of the meat. The level of contamination of the meat is a pointer to the probable exposure that a consuming subject could possibly have, to E. Coli. Concentration of E. Coli in cattle fecal matter is directly related to factors like seasonality, geographical properties, and feeding practices. However, the data related to concentration of E. Coli in the cattle fecal matter was constructed without consideration for these factors. Data used for concentration of E. Coli in fecal matter was obtained using enrichment methods. The results show a wide bipolar variation, from as low as undetectable E. Coli levels to as much as 5. 0 log10 CFU/g. The data for prevalence of E. Coli in cattle fecal matter was obtained from previously held studies. However, only data from those studies was used, that primarily aimed at detecting E. Coli prevalence rates in cattle fecal matter for beef that was supposedly slated for human consumption. 3. What comment would you make about the following: †¢ modeling the distribution of feces on carcass as Uniform? Slaughtering invariably causes the fecal matter to come in contact with the meat. Skinning a carcass will lead to contamination of exposed meat due to contact with the hide. Although, fecal matter is the main source of bacterial reservoir, the nature and number of agents that can directly or indirectly participate as contaminating agents is uncertain. However, the concentration of E. Coli in fecal matter is directly proportional to the extent of meat contamination. The distribution of fecal matter on carcass surface is uneven. A dilution factor was used as a model simplification. †¢ modeling fecal contamination only on the carcass surface? As a fact, E. Coli are present in the fecal matter but not inside red meat. Contamination of red meat, therefore, occurs only when fecal matter comes in contact with it. This will usually happen during slaughtering, and the following processes like packaging and trimming. For this reason fecal contamination has been modeled only on the carcass surface. 4. Briefly (less than 500 words), discuss the practicalities and likely success of implementing each of the proposed hypothetical mitigation strategies in the paper. The author has proposed three hypothetical risk mitigation strategies for risk reduction. However, the strategies have been proposed to reduce risk as per mentioned figures, assuming that the strategy is being implemented and the desired goal is being achieved. For instance, the first strategy of regulating storage temperature control norms shows a reduced risk to over 80%. Practically, this strategy can indeed cause a large risk reduction but a protocol will need to be developed that incorporates all the levels of the proposed beef-cold-chain, starting right from the farm to the retailer. Even with a concrete legislature to make sure this strategy works, it needs to be evaluated how far would this strategy prove to be practically enforceable. With definite legislature, a good compliance can be expected out of this strategy and apparently this strategy is far more practicable, and could prove successful. Pre-slaughter screening proposes to reduce risk by over 46%. However, more variables like feeding practices, geographical locations, and seasonal variation (that affect E. Coli fecal load) need to considered, before a definite â€Å"control† level can be instated to rule out slaughters for animals that have more than a certain level of bacterial fecal concentration. The consumer information program, although with a risk reduction of 16%, is certainly a very important level wherein proper intervention can dramatically decrease E. Coli related health morbidity. Even though anticipated risk reduction is only 16%, simple measures like adequate promotional tools, could significantly increase risk reduction through mass communication; the biggest limitation however, is that compliance in this case cannot be ascertained, nor enforceable. Keeping in mind the practical limitations of each of these strategies, a prudent approach would involve application of all the three strategies in conjunct, to ensure greater risk reduction. A good reason for this approach is that due to the uncertain nature of all the factors involved in E. Coli contamination and delivery to consuming host, it appears quite difficult to determine the individual potency of each of these factors, and they would easily remain relative values. ‘Evaluation of MRSA Select, a new chromogenic medium for the detection of nasal carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus’ 1. What is the ‘gold standard’ used to assess the sensitivity and specificity etc. of the different diagnostic tests? The sensitivity and specificity of a particular diagnostic test needs to be estimated before the test under consideration can be employed for practical purposes, to ensure that the results obtained are accurate, and of consequence. A â€Å"gold standard†, hence, is an absolute, against which results from a particular diagnostic test are compared. The gold standard, also called as the standard frame of reference, is a perfect test for the given condition, and is 100% sensitive and specific as well. 2. Is the ‘gold standard’ the same for all of the tests? Within the context of this paper, the gold standard used is same for all the tests. The gold standard used is identification of methicillin resistant S. Aureus, from nasal swabs of patients, confirmed for the mecA gene using PCR. 3. Can the tests be compared in this way? Yes, the tests can be compared this way. The same samples (n) were subjected to different growth mediums, to ascertain the presence of MRSA. All these media were specifically designed to promote the growth of MRSA. Hence, depending on the growths shown by these different media, results can be drawn and compared. 4. Are the authors’ conclusions valid? I think that the author’s conclusions are valid. Although, PCR will remain the gold standard in ascertaining presence of MRSA, the application of this procedure, to remain practically enforceable, is quite limiting. For instance, considering the sheer number of samples that an urban community hospital has to handle on a daily basis, using PCR for all instances may not be feasible all the times. In this circumstance, using simple tissue culture techniques would definitely prove to be more desirable, especially with faster results and low costs; like using the MRSA Select that will give results within 24 hours with a sensitivity and specificity over 99%. Moreover, simplicity of the test requires no complex skill set, especially compared with handling PCR techniques. References 1. Fishman, G. S. (1995). Monte Carlo: Concepts, Algorithms, and Applications. New York: Springer 2. Bell, B. P. , Goldoft, M. , Griffin, P. M. , Davis, M. S. , Gordon, D. C. , Tarr, P. I. , Bartleson, C. A. , Lewis, J. H. , Barret, T. J. , Wells, J. G. , Baron, R. , Kobayashi, J. , (1994). A multistate outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7-associated bloody diarrhea and hemolytic uremic syndrome from hamburgers: the Washington experience. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 3. Vose, D. , (1996). Quantitative risk analysis: A guide to Monte Carlo simulation modelling. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester England. 4. USDA:APHIS:VS. , 1994a. E. coliO157:H7 issues and ramifications. Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Fort Collins, CO. 5. Gehlbach SH. (1993) Interpretation: sensitivity, specificity, and predictive value. In: Gehlbach SH, ed. Interpreting the medical literature. New York: McGraw-Hill 6. Apfalter P, Assadian O, Kalczyk A, et al. (2002) Performance of a new chromogenic oxacillin resistance screen medium (Oxoid) in the detection and presumptive identification of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis;44:209–11. 7. Murakami K, Minamide W, Wada K, Nakamura E, Teraoka, H, Watanabe S. (1991) Identification of methicillin-resistant strains of staphylococci by polymerase chain reaction. J Clin Microbiol;29:2240–4. 8. Safdar N, Narans L, Gordon B, Maki DG. (2003) Comparison of culture screening methods for detection of nasal carriage of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus: a prospective study comparing 32 methods. J Clin Microbiol;41:3163–6.

Relationship Between Teacher And Students

Relationship Between Teacher And Students Similarly according to Moloi et al. (as cited in Mtika Gates, 2010), group work is one of the strategies that can be useful in student-centered approaches. It does not only help students to discuss and share ideas with each other, but it also helps to improve students understanding of some concepts and develop their communication skills. In the student-centered classroom, the teacher has to think of students needs and the classroom is considered as a place where students work together, in groups and as individuals by encouraging them to take part in the learning process all the time (Jones, 2007). In the student-centered classroom, the teacher should know about their students background. Teachers should consider what they may know or do not know about their students because it helps to create the classroom conditions that are responsive to the learning needs of the students (Hodson, 2002). Furthermore, in social constructivist classrooms the relationship between teacher and students are much more dynamically involved, so that the teachers role is much more demanding to allow and actively promote recognition, evaluation, and reconstruction (Gunstone and Northfield as cited in Hand et al., 1997).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The size for effective student-centered classrooms can be organized into large group (class with 25-30 students), medium size (5-8 students), small group (3-5 students), pair group (2 students) and a teacher and a student (only in special condition) (MoEYS, 2002a). Furthermore, classroom arrangements, especially classroom space and resources like chairs and tables for large group activities are also important because appropriate resources helps to support the effectiveness and efficiency of instruction to the students. 2. 4 Definition of the Student-Centered Approaches to Learning   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The terms student-centered approaches  and learner-centered approaches  to learning are the same and whilst some articles used the term student-centered approaches and other articles used the term learner-centered approaches, the two terms were used interchangeably. Both terms focus on the needs of students who as learners are actively involved in the learning process (Utecht, 2003). The term student-centered approaches is used in this study because this term is formally applied in Cambodian curriculum and ministry educational literature. Moreover, the student-centered approaches are broader for example, a student can be defined as learner, but a learner may not be defined as student. For example, a man wants to know about the educational law in Cambodia, so the man can go to library or search in the MoEYS website to read and learn about the law. The man therefore is not a student, but he is a learner.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The student-centered approaches to learning are defined as teaching methodologies associated with an approach to learning where students are the main characters in the learning process, and actively learn in a socially interactive way (Brush Saye, 2000). The student-centered approaches are designed to assist students to learn best from meaningful life experiences, social interactions, and scientific experimentation (Pedersen Liu, 2003).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The student-centered approaches to learning focus on individual students needs and growth, because these approaches are intended to develop the potential of every individual student and encourage their personal growth and interests (Morris, 1996). The student-centered approaches are also considered effective alternatives to the traditional teacher-centered approaches. Similarly according to Courtney (2008), it looks very different from the traditional didactic teaching methods that are widely applied in Cambodia. These traditional teaching methods depend on the direct instruction of the teacher and verbal and written repetition with little emphasis on understanding but strong emphasis on memory and recall. Kember (as cited in ONeill McMahon, 2005) and Hirumi (2002) stated the student-centered approaches are in contrast to the traditional teacher-centered approaches. In the teacher-centered approaches, teachers are at the center of the learning and teaching p rocess and provide instruction to students; the students are the empty vessels into which the teacher pours their knowledge. This view contrasts sharply to that of constructivist theory where we see that students are central to the learning process, they are not viewed as empty vessels but rather actively participate in making knowledge by thinking and solving problems for themselves, and developing their self-esteem that is essential for learning and decision-making throughout life (American Psychological Association, 1993; Hirumi, 2002; MoEYS, 2005).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The core principle of the student-centered learning approaches is that students have different abilities, needs, and interests for how they learn, and they construct knowledge and meaning and learn in different ways (Brady, 2006; Murdoch Wilson, 2008; Hirumi, 2002). The American Psychological Association (1993) stated that students have various capabilities and interests for learning. Individuals are born with and develop unique capabilities and talents and have acquired through learning and social acculturation different preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn (American Psychological Association, 1993, p. 9). According to Meyer Jones (as cited in Hirumi, 2002), in the class students talk, listen, write, read, and reflect on content, ideas, issues, and concerns in order to construct their own meaning. In student-centered environments, learners are given direct access to the knowledge-base and work individually and in small gr oups to solve authentic problems (Hirumi, 2002, p. 506). Similarly, according to Jones (2007), a student-centered class is a place where students needs are considered, as a group and as individuals, and students are encouraged to participate in the learning process all the time. At different times, students may work alone, in pairs, or in groups.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As a theory of epistemology, constructivism proposes that students bring their existing experiences and beliefs, as well as world views and their cultural histories, into the learning process when they internally build knowledge by interacting with the environment (Yilmaz, 2008). Constructivism is considered as a process that students actively construct their knowledge upon knowledge that they already have (Motschnig-Pitrik Holzinger, 2002). Social constructivist, Vygotsky believed that learning is a social process in which learners developed understanding through interaction with the environment around them (Brush Saye, 2000, p. 5). According to Jonassen; Duffy Jonassen (as cited in Brush Saye, 2000), the need for more student-centered learning activities have been promoted by the supporters of the constructivist epistemology of learning.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In short, the key characteristics of the student-centered approaches to learning emphasize students  prior knowledge and experience, developing Bloom Taxonomy thinking skills, especially critical thinking and problem solving, exploring individual learning needs and interests, promoting active student involvement, and developing motivation for life-long learning (American Psychological Association, 1993; Brush Saye, 2000; Hirumi, 2002; Mtika Gates, 2010). However, there is no single strategy that helps students to have effective learning all the time and there is no teaching strategy that is better than others in every circumstance. Each teaching strategy has its strength and weakness, so teachers need to make decisions and chose teaching strategies that help their students to achieve the learning outcomes (Killen, 2003). Similarly according to Hab Em (2003), to choose and effectively apply a teaching strategy the teacher has to judge many times because s electing an appropriate teaching strategy is based on the decision whether we provide knowledge to students through direct instruction (teacher-centered approaches) or indirect facilitation (student-centered approaches). 2. 5 Student-Centered Learning as Adopted by the Cambodian Ministry of Education   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2.5.1 Vision of learning and teaching   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Learning has many styles such as learning by seeing, listening, writing, reading, watching television, self-experiment, practice, thinking, playing games, study tour and so on. These styles of learning provide knowledge to the learners. However different learning can have different result. Learners may produce different learning outcomes with a different learning style to another student (MoEYS, 2002b). For example, those who learn by listening will forget all or remember a little after several days. Those who just stand and see people swimming cannot swim, but if they learn to swim themselves, they can swim effectively. People therefore can do something when they involve themselves. According to Confucianism, it is believed that If you tell me, I will forget. If you show me, I may remember. But if you involve me, I can do and understand (MoEYS, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Cambodian governments vision of the purposes for learning and teaching roles has gradually changed between societies and from one a period of time to another (MoEYS, 2002a). Previous teaching methods considered effective and appropriate was when teachers were considered to be the knowledge providers. Teachers provided knowledge and told students, and students listened to teachers and followed teachers without developing their own ideas or understanding. In this context teachers had the power because they had the knowledge that students needed to be able to progress through the education system. This vision was later officially abandoned because the learning outcomes were considered unsuitable to both the needs of the country for skilled thinkers and they compared poorly to the wider international educational context.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the following period, another new teaching method was integrated called question and answer method. The teacher raised questions and the students answered. This method was adopted in the belief that it would bring better results for students. The question and answer method was later changed and reformed to what was known as the active method because this method required much relationship between teacher and students. For the last vision, it was believed that creation only relationship between teacher and students was not enough. To have better result for students, relationship between students and students must be created in the teaching and learning process. Teachers have to prepare students to work in groups, so students can exchange their ideas, work cooperatively, and help each other in learning. This last vision is a very important part of student-centered approaches (Hab Em, 2003; Inspector, 2002; Ung, 2008). These approaches to learning and teachin g shifted the power reposition of the teacher from one who held all the knowledge to a more equal one where teachers partner with, sometimes lead, their students into new understanding and knowledge.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2.5.2 Principle and theory   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Theories that are applied and relevant to teaching and learning in the current Cambodian school system are: Learning is creating new knowledge Learning is exchanging experience (Inspector, 2002)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The theories of learning above are also clearly identifiable as concepts of constructivism. Although constructivism is not a theory of learning, the principles have been applied by many educators in teaching and learning, especially, but not only, in science education (Han et al., 1997; Yilmaz, 2008). Constructivism emphasizes that knowledge and meaning are constructed by the human mind; in effect learners create links between their existing knowledge and new experience and make new knowledge structures and meaning (Yilmaz, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The role of teachers and students are changed by the adoption of the student-centered approaches to learning. Students are given greater responsibility for their learning and the teachers roles change where they become more coordinators or facilitators of the learning experiences. Students are encouraged to explore the knowledge by themselves and with other learners and the teachers help the learning process by showing students paths of knowledge. In this new role in the classroom, the teachers become part of the learning process and acts as a guide and a resource for the students (Utecht, 2003). Furthermore, the importance of school is to provide multiple opportunities to students to create knowledge and understanding by themselves through research, real experience and solving problems.

Fraud :: Free Essay Writer

Fraud Cut-off Fraud Fraud involves purposeful attempts to deceive, not good-faith disagreements on accounting treatments. One of the five basic methods companies used to boost up their profits is fraud in timing, which is also called cut-off fraud. This is done by recognizing profits early and liabilities and expenses late. â€Å"According to GAAP, revenue is recognized when the earnings process is complete and the rights of ownership have passed from seller to buyer.† There are three categories in revenue recognition fraud: 1) playing with time, 2) recording revenue when services are still due, 3) shipping merchandise before the sale is final. Playing with time is the most common way to commit revenue recognition fraud. It involves holding the books open past the end of the accounting period to accumulate more sales. For example, one such company actually set to stop there clock at the end of each quarter until targets sales are made. And all the sales would be counted as in the accounting period to boost up their sales. Another method for recognizing revenue early is booking the entire revenue amount when service is not completely rendered. Many companies ignore the percentage-of-completion contracts by taking the cash payments into income, fail to record offsetting accruals for services paid for in advance, and record refundable deposits as income. The last category is shipping merchandise before the sale is final. Consignment merchandi se is counted as being sold. A few companies also shipped merchandise to private warehouse for storage and counted it as being sold. If one person handle the same transaction from beginning to end, premature revenue recognition is easier to accomplish. The responsibilities of order entry, shipping, billing, accounts receivable detail and general ledge should be distributed among different employees. With several different employees handling the process, it’ll be more difficult to commit fraud.

The Business Model Essay -- Business Management Essays

The Business Model Michael Lewis (2000: pages 256-257) scoffed at the whole attempt to formalize the definition of business models when he wrote that â€Å" â€Å"Business Model† is one of those terms of art that were central to the Internet boom: it glorifies all manner of half baked plans. All it really meant was how you planned to make money.† In an abstract of his paper â€Å"A Mesoscopic Approach to Business Models: Nano Research on Management† published in â€Å"Economic Issues in China† Dr. Junyi Weng stated that â€Å"Business Model, a well known important and extensively used term by media, management consultancy and business top managers, is just in an embarrassment that there is no consensus about its definition and few papers in academic periodicals.† He designed and discusses his conception of business models based interfaces interacting in interior and exterior business environments. Peter Weill, Thomas W. Malone, Victoria T. D’Urso, George Herman and Stephanie Woerner of MIT in their paper â€Å"Do Some Business Models Perform Better than others?: A Study of the 1000 Largest US Firms† agree that the concept of business models is while widely discussed is seldom systematically discussed. The paper then proceeds to postulate a conceptual framework for comprehensively classifying business models. These consist of four basic types of business models (Creator, Landlord, Distributor and Broker), which are each broken down into four variants accordance with type of assets they deal in (physical, financial, intangible and human). Thus giving rise to 16 specialised business Model types.† Professor Michael Rappa like many others prefer to present a comprehensive and cogent taxonomy of basic categories as observed on the web as follows: Brokerage Advertising Infomediary Merchant Manufacturer (Direct) Affiliate Community Subscription Utility He however, does not believe that these are exhaustive and expects new and interesting variations in the future. KMLab Inc. offers an interesting definition: â€Å"a Business model is a description of how your company intends to create value in the market place. It includes that unique combination of products, services, image and distribution that your company carries forward. It also includes the underlying organization of people and the operational infrastructure that they use to accomplish their work. In some ways... ...rocesses such as inventory management etc. Maybelline a company founded in 1915 is one of the largest selling color cosmetics line in the United States. Its sells through outlets of almost every major mass-market retailer, such as supermarkets, drugstores, discount stores and cosmetics specialty stores. Its products are also available in over 70 countries worldwide. Maybelline uses a traditional model in its sales distribution network, which is the use of sales representatives to canvass for business and to arrange for sales. The use of sales representatives who are employees makes this a Business-to-Employee-to-Business interface model. In the 1990s the company a traditional â€Å"mortar† company re-invents itself a click and mortar company through the use of ICTs. However, one innovation to the sales representative concept is Maybelline’s use of its representatives as market intelligence reporters, who actually serve as the eyes of the company to monitor the progress of its products and the way they are handled by the retailers as well as progress of competitors’ products. This is the trading/sales structure of the company, which cannot be said to be a new business model.

Corporal Punishment in Schools Essay -- Essays Papers

Corporal Punishment in Schools I wrote this paper for Contemporary Moral Issues class. This was an assignment of our choice and I chose to do this topic, because the week before in Intro to Education we had discussed discipline methods and I was astonished to learn that corporal punishment still existed in schools. I am hoping that by including this piece of work on my webfolio others will become aware that corporal punishment is alive and used often in our schools. In the following paper I will discuss the controversial issue of the use of corporal punishment in schools. Supporters for corporal punishment say that it is a deterrent to misbehavior and delinquency, is needed to maintain discipline, and is not a form of child abuse. The position against corporal punishment says that it is of limited effectiveness, has potentially serious side effects, is a form of child abuse, and should be abolished in all schools. I think the position against corporal punishment should become the social or public policy. Corporal punishment should not be used as a form of discipline, because it leaves psychological and physical harm on children. The first key argument against corporal punishment that I will present is the argument that corporal punishment is a form of child abuse. The Policy Statement of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry states, "corporal punishment is a discipline method in which a supervising adult deliberately inflicts pain upon a child in response to a child's unacceptable behavior and/or inappropriate language" (1). If one is deliberately inflicting pain on another, then that is for sure a form of abuse. Many students are physically and psychologically assaulted... ...htm 1. Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health. Guidance for Effective Discipline." American Academy of Pediatrics 101 (April 1998) Database on-line. Available from ERIC, American Academy of Pediatrics. 1. Flynn, Clifton P. "Exploring the link between corporal punishment and children's cruelty to animals." Journal of Marriage and Family 61 (November 1999). Database on-line. Available from ProQuest. 3. Hyman, Irwin A. "Using research to change public policy: reflections on 20 years of efforts to eliminate corporal punishment in schools." Pediatrics 98 (October 1996). Database on-line. Available from ProQuest, Expanded Academic ASAP. 2-4. Hyman, Irwin A. and Pamela A. Shook. Dangerous Schools: What We Can Do about the Physicaland Emotional Abuse of Our Children. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass, 1999. 3.

A Summary of Marketing Myopia Essay

Abstract This document summarizes the work of Theodore Levitt in his work published in The Harvard Business Review titled â€Å"Marketing Myopia.† Levitt’s work details the reasons growth industries are actually not that at all, and how organizations fail across the globe in regards to marketing. In addition, the document will correlate Levitt’s work in 1960 to contemporary marketing. Keyword: Theodore Levitt, marketing myopia, contemporary marketing A Summary of Marketing Myopia Marketing Myopia by Theodore Levitt was published by Harvard Business Review in the summer of 1960. According to Levitt (1960), all industries are growth industries and the failure of industries is not because of marketing saturation, but because of management. Levitt uses the oil industry, automobile industry, transportation industry, and electronics industry to support that notion. In addition, Levitt details how population has no effect on business success. Lastly, Levitt summaries what is necessary to avoid the marketing myopia syndrome from an overview. Levitt opens his work by point out that failure is at the top. In a more specific response, failure of the organization rest on the top executives who are responsible for broad aims and policies (Levitt, 1960). To support his idea, Levitt utilized the railroad and Hollywood movie companies as examples. Levitt explains the railroad did not fail because passenger and freight transportation declined, but because the railroad failed to supply the customers’ need (Levitt, 1960). Levitt continues with Hollywood explaining that they did not fail because TV shows; they failed because management classified them as the â€Å"movie† business instead of the â€Å"entertainment† business (Levitt, 1960). Levitt continues to support his notion by indicating what saved Hollywood. Levitt explains, it was not a  resurgence of customers to the movie industry, but in fact was a surge of young new writers. Levitt continues the explanation of Marketing Myopia by ruling out the population myth. According to Levitt (1960), the idea that profits are assured by and expanding and more affluent population is dear to every industry. However; Levitt continues by indicating that this â€Å"myth† is undergoing a fundamental yet typical change (Levitt, 1960). The population myth attempts to explain that if large quantities of people need the product then product development to replace the current item is not necessary. According to Levitt (1960), the petroleum industry’s efforts have focused on improving the efficiency of getting and making its product, not really on improving the generic product or its marketing. Therefore, the petroleum industry owes its continued success to other product developments. In order to avoid â€Å"marketing myopia† companies must make four steps. To begin they must adapt to the requirements of the market, and the faster the better. Second, the company must employ a vigorous leader whose vision and drive set the pace for the company. Third, the entire organization must be customer creating and customer satisfying organizations. Lastly, the company must think of itself as buying customers. Contemporary marketing focuses on the needs of the buyer versus the seller. Levitt’s work with Marketing Myopia relates directly to that point. Businesses are no longer able to sit back and enjoy continued market growth. They must focus on the buyers needs and at the same time take necessary steps to make its own products obsolete. Furthermore, business must focus on what industry they place their product, as with the railroad being in the â€Å"railroad† business rather than the â€Å"transportation† business. In conclusion, Theodore Levitt published Marketing Myopia in the 1960 edition of the Harvard Business Review. The article explains how companies fall to the extinction list in relatively short time periods or are revived by other companies whose product relies on theirs. Levitt explains the four steps companies must take to ensure they do not catch the myopic views. References Levitt, T. (1960). Marketing Myopia. Harvard Business Review, 138-149.

Criticisms in “In the Penal Colony” Essay

The antediluvian apparatus and ancient legal system in Kafka’s â€Å"In the Penal Colony† describes the current state of humanity in the colonial era.   Through the use, along with the circumstances surrounding the machine, Kafka portrays slavery and colonialism in the world and the consequences of failing to abolish such ways. The people of the colony are represented by â€Å"the Soldier†, â€Å"the Officer†, â€Å"the Explorer†, â€Å"the Condemned man†, and â€Å"the Commandant†.   By giving them these names, Kafka has essentially dehumanized them much like those who have been condemned to working in penal colonies; they only have functions, not names.   The harsh bureaucratic ways of the colony can be seen through the punishments handed out as told by the Officer who is: much more interested in the technicalities of the execution than the niceties of legal procedure. The actual execution is to be carried out by a complex apparatus designed by the former Commandant of the penal colony and maintained by the Officer. The machine tortures the condemned man in a process that brutally mimics and transforms the sexual act. The condemned man is strapped naked onto something akin to a bed and the top part of the apparatus, a set of knife-like needles, automatically descends, piercing his body and excreting a fluid that inscribes the sentence upon his flesh. For the first six hours of the writing process, the condemned man â€Å"suffers only pain† (149) but as the needles pierce his internal organs more deeply, he achieves a form of enlightenment that culminates in death. (Kohn 5) The way in which the punishment is filtered through the legal system of the penal colony is also rather questionable.   The Officer says, â€Å"I have been appointed judge in this penal colony†(145) and uses his principle of: Guilt is never to be doubted.   Other courts cannot follow that principle, for they consist of several opinions and have higher courts to scrutinize them.   That is not the case here, or at least, it was not the case in the former Commandant’s time.†(145) to rule over his judgments.   For the condemned man, he has no chance to defend himself and prove his innocence by virtue of the system in place.   They are always going to be found guilty for the sake of being guilty so they can have an execution take place and bring some kind of grotesque excitement where, â€Å"hundreds of spectators—all of them standing on tiptoe†(153) could bear witness to them. Aside from the archaic methods of criminal procedures, Kafka also presents the reliance on antiquated technology through this work in the presentation of execution machine to portray the costs associated with running a penal colony for slave labor during his time.   We first get a glimpse of the harsh realities of the machine and the cost to upkeep it when the soldier breaks the wrist strap and the Officer says, â€Å"This is a very complex machine, it can’t be helped that things are breaking or giving way here and there; but one must not thereby allow oneself to be diverted in one’s general judgment†(151).   He continues saying: the resources for maintaining the machine are now very much reduced.   Under the former Commandant I had free access to a sum of money set aside entirely for this purpose.   There was a store, too, in which spare parts were kept for repairs of all kinds. (151)†¦Now he has taken charge of the machine money himself, and if I send for a new strap they ask for the broken old strap as evidence, and the new strap takes ten days to appear and then is of shoddy material and not much good. (151) There was an entire store dedicated solely to maintaining the machine it much like penal colonies were such a hindrance on the economies of the nations that controlled and maintained them. As the story progresses, we can see how the ways of the penal colony are being phased out when we hear the Officer tell the Explorer: there’s no time to lose, an attack of some kind is impending on my function as judge; conferences are already being held in the Commandant’s office from which I am excluded; even your coming here today seems to me a significant move; they are cowards and use you as a screen, you, a stranger.(153) The Officer views the Explorer with a great deal of clout believing he can restore the penal colony to the greatness that it once enjoyed.   However, the Explorer knows the harsh realities of the colony and refuses to play along with Officer to help him bring the colony back to its previous state.   Instead we see the Explorer as, â€Å"a kind of outsider,†(157) a change in attitudes throughout the world looking in on the colony.   The Officer finally realizes that the Explorer is not there to help him restore what once was, and he submits himself to his own machine.   As the machine is inscribing ‘be just’ into his body, it fails due to its complex nature and failing state, much like the failing state of the colony, and kills him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Through close readings of â€Å"In the Penal Colony,† we gain an insight as to what Kafka was trying to accomplish with this work.   His nation, Germany, as well as many others in the world at the time had undertaken colonialism and establishing penal colonies to better their nations.   However, Kafka illustrates the failing nature of these establishments through their rudimentary justice systems and monetary reliance on the host nations economies.   Instead of bettering society through what was being provided by the slave labor, the social order of the world was being torn apart keeping them afloat. Works Cited Kohn, Margaret. â€Å"Kafka’s Critique of Colonialism.† Theory & Event. 8.3 (2005): 5. Print.